Recibido: 27/9/2025
Aprobado: 25/01/2026
Ciencia y Reflexión - Revista Científica Multidisciplinaria
ISSN 3045-5537 (en línea) Enero-Marzo, 2026, Volumen 5, Número 1 Pág. 260
DOI: https://doi.org/10.70747/cr.v5i1.783
Reading Comprehension Skills and Lexical Knowledge among
Second-Year High School Learners of English as a Foreign
Language in Azogues
Angélica Natalí Muñoz Alvarez
https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7312-5830
angelica.munoz@unl.edu.ec
Universidad Nacional de Loja
Maestría en Pedagogía del Inglés como Lengua Extranjera
Facultad de Educación, el Arte y la Comunicación
Azogues - Ecuador
Adriana Elizabeth Cango Patiño
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3073-477X
adriana.cango@unl.edu.ec
Universidad Nacional de Loja
Maestría en Pedagogía del Inglés como Lengua Extranjera
Facultad de Educación, el Arte y la Comunicación
Loja – Ecuador
Jocelyn Andrea Lojan Caicedo
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-1210-7419
jocelyn.lojan@unl.edu.ec
Universidad Nacional de Loja
Maestría en Pedagogía del Inglés como Lengua Extranjera
Facultad de Educación, el Arte y la Comunicación
Loja – Ecuador
Thalía Valeria Ocampo Arévalo
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8048-0882
thalia.ocampo@unl.edu.ec
Universidad Nacional de Loja
Maestría en Pedagogía del Inglés como Lengua Extranjera
Facultad de Educación, el Arte y la Comunicación
Loja – Ecuador
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ABSTRACT
Developing reading comprehension is not easy, but it is essential to foreign language
learning. Therefore, researching the elements underlying this process is important in the
educational field. This study examined the reading comprehension skills and lexical
knowledge of second-year high school learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) at a
private school in Azogues at the beginning of the 2025-2026 school year. A quantitative,
non-experimental research explored the relationship between these variables. Ninety
students participated, selected through convenience, and two achievement tests were
administered: one measuring reading comprehension (skimming for gist, scanning for
details, inferential reading, and understanding text logic and structure), and another
assessing lexical knowledge(lexicon in context, functional vocabulary, lexical sets, and
word-definition correspondence). Both instruments adapted from Cambridge and British
Council and validated by experts. Descriptive statistics indicated that students performed
best in inferential reading, while understanding text logic and structure was challenging.
Regarding lexical knowledge, learners demonstrated strong performance in lexical sets but
faced difficulties in using vocabulary in context and applying functional vocabulary.
Inferential and descriptive analyses were conducted using JAMOVI. Since the normality
test showed non-normal distribution, a Spearman correlation was applied. Results revealed
a strong, positive, and statistically significant relationship between reading comprehension
and lexical knowledge (r= 0.711, p < .001). This suggests that students with richer lexical
knowledge tend to achieve higher levels of reading comprehension. These findings highlight
the importance of explicit lexicon instruction to support reading development. Further
research with larger and more diverse samples is recommended
Keywords: correlation, EFL learners, lexical knowledge, reading comprehension
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The Editor and the Reviewers declared no conflict of interest.
License:
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Habilidades de Comprensión Lectora y Conocimiento Léxico en
Estudiantes de Segundo Año de Bachillerato de inglés Como Lengua
Extranjera en Azogues
RESUMEN
Desarrollar comprensión lectora no es fácil, pero si esencial al aprender otro idioma. Por
esto, es importante estudiar los elementos subyacentes de este proceso. Este estudio
examina habilidades de comprensión lectora y conocimiento léxico de los estudiantes de
segundo año de bachillerato de inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL) en una institución
educativa privada de Azogues, al inicio del año escolar 2025-2026. Su enfoque cuantitativo
y diseño no experimental exploraron la relación entre variables. Participaron 90
estudiantes seleccionados mediante muestreo por conveniencia. Para la recolección de
datos se aplicaron dos pruebas: comprensión lectora (lectura global, lectura para detalles,
lectura inferencial y comprensión de la lógica y estructura textual), y conocimiento léxico
(uso del léxico en contexto, vocabulario funcional, campos léxicos y correspondencia
palabra-definición). Ambos instrumentos adaptados de Cambridge y British Council y
validados por expertos. Las estadísticas descriptivas mostraron que los estudiantes
obtuvieron mejores resultados en lectura inferencial, y puntajes bajos en la comprensión
de la lógica y estructura del texto. En cuanto al conocimiento de vocabulario, destacaron
en campos léxicos, pero evidenciaron dificultades en el uso contextual de palabras y en el
manejo del léxico funcional. Los datos no siguieron una distribución normal y se aplicó la
correlación de Spearman. Los resultados mostraron una correlación positiva, fuerte y
estadísticamente significativa entre variables (r= 0.711, p < .001), lo que sugiere que un
mayor dominio del léxico favorece una mejor lectura. Estos hallazgos resaltan la
importancia del vocabulario para la comprensión lectora. Se recomienda ampliar futuras
investigaciones a muestras más diversas
Palabras clave: conocimiento de léxico, correlación, comprensión lectora, estudiantes
EFL
Los autores declaran no tener conflicto de intereses.
El Editor y los Revisores declararon no tener conflicto de intereses.
Licencia:
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INTRODUCTION
The ideal profile of a second-year high school student in a private school includes strong
reading comprehension and rich lexicon. The relationship between these two elements is
crucial because vocabulary knowledge is the foundation for understanding complex texts, infer
meaning, make connections, and develop strong comprehension skills. Vocabulary functions
as a cognitive mediator between the reader and the text by allowing the integration of prior
knowledge with new information to decode symbols and build coherent mental
representations of meaning.
However, what is happening among English as a foreign language (EFL) learners? Al- Jarrah
and Ismail (2018) explain that students underestimate developing reading comprehension
skills. The authors argue that this problem is linked to insufficient lexical knowledge, which
might impede proper reading comprehension.
This area is not new in research, Dong et al. (2020) analyzed 89 studies in China, finding a
correlation between these two variables. Similarly, Romero-Contreras (2021) found that
lexicon is a predictor of reading comprehension. Therefore, there is a correlation, that exist
because lexicon provides building blocks for meaning and support for inference-making, which
facilitates reading comprehension (Dong et al., 2020, Romero- Contreras et al., 2021).
Indeed, these studies have provided valuable insights for the present research. Nonetheless,
important gaps should be considered for further exploration. For example, there is a lack of
studies focused on lexical knowledge and reading comprehension in private education. By
exploring them, some differences might be identified regarding availability of resources or
instructional quality. Additionally, although similar studies have been conducted in Ecuador,
they have taken place in large cities like Quito, leaving smaller ones like Azogues absent in the
literature.
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Therefore, the findings of previous studies cannot be fully generalized to the Ecuadorian
private-school sector due to differences in institutional resources and practices, highlighting
the need for more localized and context-specific research.
Ultimately, understanding the relationship between lexical knowledge and reading
comprehension supports evidence-based improvements in learning outcomes. All these might
be valuable for teachers, students, researchers, and even parents. As Royeras and Sumayo
(2024) suggest, teachers should be well-informed in order to motivate learners to engage in
reading and lexical development. Learners, must engage themselves in reading activities and
lexical videos through their technological devices (Royeras & Sumayo, 2024). Additionally,
these authors highlight the role of parents’ support throughout this process. Finally, researchers
conducting correlational studies will find it interesting and adaptable to other school levels.
Addressing these gaps, the present study seeks to answer the following research question:
What are the reading comprehension skills and lexical knowledge among second-year high
school EFL learners at a private school in Azogues? To explore it fully, this question is broken
down into three specific sub-questions: How do these EFL students perform in reading
comprehension tasks? What is their lexical knowledge at a private school in Azogues? How
does their lexical knowledge relate to their reading comprehension skills?
LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature explored for this study provides information on reading comprehension skills
and lexical knowledge, highlighting their significance in the EFL context.
Reading
Reading is defined as a process that includes recognition of words, fluency, motivation, and
accuracy (Leipzig, 2001). The author affirms that “reading is the motivated and fluent
coordination of word recognition and comprehension” (Leipzig, 2001, p.4). Regarding reading
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comprehension, it involves actively engaging with a text, extracting key information, and
constructing meaning from it (Snow, 2002, as cited in Butterfuss et al., 2020). If a text is read
without being understood, the reading skill is not properly developed.
Now, understanding the mental processes behind reading comprehension provides insights
into the specific abilities that learners develop as a result of these processes.
Skimming for Gist
Skimming, according to Pakpahan (2023), involves rapidly scanning a text to get its central
message without focusing on every word. While gist, on the other hand, refers to the general
idea of the passage, often expressed in a complete sentence (Pakpahan, 2023). Although
skimming, at first, might seem for lazy readers, it has great value even for proficient ones.
Scanning for Specific Details
In contrast to skimming, scanning allows readers to process up to 1500 words per minute while
searching for specific pieces of information (Pakpahan, 2023). As the author defines it,
“Scanning is reading quickly to search for specific information” (Pakpahan, 2023, p. 4), or in
simpler terms, reading at glance. In educational settings, students may use scanning to find
specific details needed to complete a task efficiently.
Inferential Reading
Reading may appear easy, especially since a text can be revised multiple times. However,
understanding information that is not explicitly presented requires a more advanced ability:
inference. Nadalini et al. (2025) explain that making inferences in reading entails drawing
logical conclusions based on implicit information.
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Understanding Text Logic and Structure
To achieve effective reading comprehension, a text must follow a coherent structure and
logical sequence. Tüchler and Cain (2025) expose that while readers process a text, they
decode meaning while encoding spatial location of key terms or entire sections. The way
information is organized contributes in supporting spatial working memory (Tüchler & Cain,
2025).
Lexical Knowledge
A word is the basic unit of a language that carries meaning, and the sum of all the words in a
language is known as its lexicon or vocabulary (Kodirova, 2023). As individuals may
understand how vocabulary functions as a natural part of growing up. Once a learner domains
lexical knowledge, higher-level language abilities establish a base for continuous language
learning.
Use Lexicon in Context
While vocabulary can be taught in isolation including simply definitions, learners demonstrate
mastery when being able to use words in authentic situations. Li (2022) highlights that
understanding and applying vocabulary in meaningful contexts enhances learners’ ability to
communicate effectively. Additionally, when students engage with vocabulary in natural
settings, they become more competent language users.
Knowledge of Functional Vocabulary
Börjars (2020) conceptualizes functional vocabulary as compact words, such as “the”, “of”,
“she”, that contribute to sentence structure. According to the author, they have universal
functions, which means that, no matter the language, functional lexicon shape syntax in
predictable ways (Börjars, 2020). In simpler terms, word groups like auxiliaries, prepositions,
conjunctions, and pronouns follow patterns that contribute to build grammatical structure.
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Lexical Sets
On the other hand, another crucial aspect to consider when learning lexicon is the relationship
among vocabulary words. Nguyet (2021) refers to these connections as lexical sets. She
explains that lexical sets consist of groups of words that are semantically related, that is, they
share a common meaning or concept. Understanding and learning these is vital since it
facilitates vocabulary acquisition by creating mental connections among words.
Word-Definition Correspondence
Although the term “definition” is familiar to language learners, it is surprisingly difficult to find
on an article. It suggests the need for further exploration. Pham et al. (2023) emphasize that,
for most people, a word´s definition is simply what it says in the dictionary. Therefore, even
when the concept of the word definition is not common in the research field, its accessibility
makes it important to know and differentiate definitions for effective language learning.
In summary, the literature shows a generally positive correlation between lexical knowledge
and reading comprehension, especially when learners receive explicit vocabulary instruction.
Furthermore, a high knowledge of lexicon can support comprehension, not only of literal
meaning but also of implicit ideas. It is possible to develop inferential reading skills and gain a
deeper understanding of the text.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
This study responded to a quantitative approach. Ahmadin (2022) explains that this approach
focuses on using structured instruments, such as tests or surveys, to collect numerical data that
can be analyzed statistically. In this research, numerical data was collected through two
achievement tests, and their scores served to determine whether there was a correlation
between developing reading comprehension and having rich lexical knowledge. The
quantitative approach allowed for objective measurement to identify a possible relation
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between the two variables.
The design of this study was cross-sectional since data was collected at a single point in time,
at the beginning of the 2025-2026 academic year, rather than tracking modifications or
correlations over time (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
Additionally, the study used a non-experimental correlational design. Non-experimental means
that the researcher did not manipulate any variables or assigned participants to different groups
or conditions, but instead observed and analyzed them in their natural state. The correlational
approach, on the other hand, was useful to describe existing conditions and explore how
reading comprehension was associated with lexical knowledge. According to Creswell and
Creswell (2017), the non-experimental design is commonly used in correlational studies within
education to explore the relationship between variables.
The study took place in a private K 12 school in the center of Azogues, Cañar, Ecuador, at the
beginning of the 2025-2026 school year. Upon obtaining institutional authorization, the
research was carried out using the school´s infrastructure, which provided the necessary
conditions for the administration of the tests. While the initial groups consisted of
approximately 30 students per classroom, the final sample size was restricted to the learners
whose representatives provided formal informed consent.
Therefore, the study targeted the total population of second-year high school students at the
selected school. From this group, a final sample of 90 participants was established, excluding
those who did not obtain parental consent. The inclusion criteria required participants to be
enrolled in the second year of high school having achieved the B1 English level according to
the standards established by the Ecuadorian Ministry of Education (Ministerio de Educación
del Ecuador, 2019).
A non-probabilistic convenience sampling design was used since the researcher served as the
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teacher of all groups at this academic level (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). This sample size of 90
is statistically adequate to ensure enough power for the planned correlational analyses (Kang,
2021).
Data Collection Sources and Techniques
The present research work employed the testing method; which is particularly effective for
measuring and evaluating language proficiency in broad scales. As Rashid and Sipahi (2021)
explain, this method was ideal as the instruments were quantitative and could handle large
samples. Consequently, it facilitated the examination of relationships between variables while
allowing drawing generalizable and reliable conclusions.
The study used two achievement tests as its primary instruments to gather the quantitative
data. It allowed the researcher to identify students’ reading comprehension skills and measure
their lexical knowledge to explore a possible correlation between these two variables.
The reading comprehension test consisted of 4 questions with 5 items each, designed to
evaluate skimming for gist, scanning for specific details, inferential reading, and understanding
text logic and structure. The lexical knowledge test included 4 questions with 6, 8, 6, and 5
items, respectively, aimed at assessing lexicon use in context, knowledge of functional
vocabulary, lexical sets, and word-definition correspondence. As previously mentioned, the
researcher, who evaluated students, was also their teacher. This person had already introduced
the concepts of skimming, scanning, inference, text logic, contextualized lexicon, functional
vocabulary, lexical sets, and definitions. Students had already completed activities based on
those concepts and had received tips on how to perform better on those kinds of exercises.
Both were based on Cambridge exams and The British Council lexical activities.
The data collected contributed to achieve the research objective regarding examining the
correlation between the variables.
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Even though both tests were adapted from established Cambridge and British Council
assessments, they underwent significant modifications to suit the local context. These
adjustments ensured the instruments remained consistent with the B1 level of the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). they had a lot of modifications. For
instance, the extension of the reading texts was carefully reduced to also reduce the number
of comprehension items in each question. Some terminology was replaced with more familiar
words trying to make the tests easier. The structure of the lexical test was modified, and the
vocabulary words were organized into charts to make it more visually friendly. Consequently,
five experts, who had experience in educational research, had to validate them after these
changes. They focused on content validity, which refers to ensuring that the items cover the
construct intended to be measured (Kalkbrenner, 2021). The author explains that this process
is important in order to get reliable results. The validation process was also evaluated using
the Aiken’s V test, getting scores of 1 over 1 in the reading instrument and 0.8 out of 1 in the
lexicon one. Therefore, some recommendations were followed to improve the second
instrument and ensure the validity of both tests.
Following the validation of the instruments, the reliability of both tests was assessed with the
JAMOVI software, using Cronbach’s Alpha (𝛼). This coefficient measures reliability in different
fields like the educational, social, and behavioral (Ravinder & Saraswathi, 2020). The results
showed a Cronbach’s 𝛼 of 0.734 for the reading comprehension test, which means its items
had an acceptable level of consistency as tis value exceeds the conventional threshold of 0.70.
On the other hand, the Cronbach’s 𝛼 for the lexicon test was 0.450 indicating a low-item
correlation.
Despite the reliability limitations, it does not mean there is a lack of correlation, but the findings
related to lexical knowledge must be interpreted with extreme caution throughout the study.
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Data Analysis
Considering the nature of the study, the researcher used inferential and descriptive statistics to
analyze quantitative data. The findings were presented through tables and charts generated
with JAMOVI to facilitate the interpretation of the scores of the achievement tests. This
analysis allowed the researcher to discover the connection between reading comprehension
and lexical knowledge.y
Descriptive statistics were essential to show the general performance of participants in both
tests through the mean, median, and standard deviation values. On the other hand, inferential
statistics directly focused on the relationship between reading comprehension and lexicon and
determined whether this correlation was statistically significant. Specifically, the relationship
was analyzed using the Spearman correlation coefficient because data did not have a normal
distribution.
Akoglu (2018) proposed the following guidelines to interpret correlation, and these were
essential in the data analysis process:
Table 1
Procedure
As the researcher was the teacher of all the participants, they were given specific instructions
to be part of the data collection process. Everything started with an informed consent. If
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parents let learners participate, they could take both tests, if not, they had to accomplish
another task related to the English subject. Also, the teacher explained the objective of the
project, which had nothing to do with the students’ academic progress. The same instructions
were given in the four classrooms where the researcher teaches.
The day of the test, approximately 90 out of 125 students handed the consents signed by their
representatives and took the tests while their classmates completed a grammar activity. As
this process was authorized by the principal of the school, it was conducted during class time.
As a result, participants were given 30 minutes for each test; however, if one learner finished
the first test in less time, this person was given the second test immediately.
At the end, 180 tests were collected as instruments of data, 90 for reading comprehension and
90 for lexical knowledge.
RESULTS
Objective 1: To assess reading comprehension skills.
Table 2. Test. Central measures of tendency of students’ reading comprehension skills.
N
Mean
SD
Minimum
Maximum
Reading for Gist (2.5 points)
90
1.44
0.755
0.00
2.50
Reading for Specific Details (2.5 points)
90
1.67
0.526
0.00
2.50
Inferential Reading (2.5 points)
90
1.83
0.868
0.00
2.50
Understand Text Logic and Structure (2.5
points)
90
1.27
0.825
0.00
2.50
Total (10/10)
90
6.22
2.251
1.00
9.50
Source: authors’ own elaboration
Table 1 presents the scores obtained by 90 students in a reading comprehension test, which
focused on “reading for gist”, “reading for specific detail”, “inferential reading”, and “understand
text logic and structure”.
From the four dimensions evaluated, learners got the highest score in inferential reading, with
a mean of 1.83, and a standard deviation (SD) of 0.868. This SD indicates that there was a
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variation among scores even though it was moderated. In other words, while some students
performed better at reading between the lines and understanding implied ideas, other showed
weaker inferential skills. Also, they got 1,44 in reading for gist showing a moderate performance
in identifying the general idea of a text. The variation in scores across dimensions does not
necessarily indicate low overall proficiency, it actually reflects the natural dispersion of
individual skill levels within the classroom. They also demonstrated a good ability to locate
precise information with a score of 1.67 in reading for specific details. Furthermore, this last
had less variability than the other dimensions with a SD of 0.526, so learners performed very
similar on this component. It seems that the most difficult for them was to understand text
logic and structure since they got the lowest mean (1.27). This indicates difficulties in
recognizing how ideas are organized.
Moreover, all the dimensions had something in common and that was the minimum range of
0 points. At least one student got the lowest score of all and was unable to answer any item
correctly. All this data reveals that students’ strengths were mostly in inferential reading and
their weaknesses in text logic and structure. Nevertheless, the wide range of scores across
dimensions suggest that there were still learners struggling in different aspects of reading
comprehension. Consequently, instructional strategies are needed, especially in teaching text
structure.
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Objective 2: To evaluate lexical knowledge.
Table 2. Test. Central measures of tendency of students’ lexical knowledge.
N
Mean
SD
Minimum
Maximum
Use Lexicon in Context (2.4 points)
90
1.30
0.595
0.000
2.40
Functional Vocabulary (3.2 points)
90
1.49
1.139
0.000
3.20
Lexical Sets (2.4 points)
90
2.27
0.261
1.200
2.40
Word-Definition Correspondence
(2 points)
90
1.47
0.475
0.400
2.40
Total (10/10)
90
6.57
1.746
3.200
9.60
Source: authors’ own elaboration
On the other hand, Table 2 shows the 90 students´ scores in a test focused on lexical
knowledge, specifically on “use lexicon in context”, “functional vocabulary”, “lexical sets”, and
“word-definition correspondence”.
In this test, students’ abilities were stronger in lexical sets with a mean of 2.27, the highest of
all. Additionally, it had the lowest SD (0.261), which means that learners were good at
identifying lexical sets, and they actually performed very similar. Even the minimum number
was 1.200/2.400; exactly the half of the total score. Then, word- definition correspondence
with a mean of 1.47 very close to functional vocabulary with a mean of 1.49. Nonetheless, their
SD were very different. The first got 0.475 and the last 1.139; while students demonstrated
similar performance to associate a word with its definition, their abilities to use functional
words were very different among them. It can be said that while some students did a great job,
others had poor results. Finally, the lowest mean was for the use of lexicon in context with a
moderate SD of 0.595. In this component, the minimum score was 0, but some learners got
the highest grade as well. All this mean that learners were stronger at recognizing lexical sets,
but experienced challenges in using vocabulary appropriately in context and functional
application of words.
Also, the variability in score highlights the differences in vocabulary knowledge and usage
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among the group. Therefore, to support a more balanced development of lexical competence
some instructional strategies should be suggested. For example: contextualized practice,
exercises in words usage, and reinforcement of functional vocabulary.
Objective 3: To associate reading comprehension skills and lexical knowledge.
Table 3. Normality test Shapiro Wilk – Reading comprehension skills and lexical knowledge.
Shapiro-Wilk
N
Minimum
Maximum
W
p
READING
90
1
9.5
0.942
<.001
LEXICON
90
3.2
9.6
0.945
<.001
Source: authors’ own elaboration
After explaining the results obtained in the “reading comprehension” and the “lexical
knowledge” tests, Table 3 shows the outcome of the Shapiro Wilk test used to assess the
normality of data. The results for both tests (<.001) showed that the distribution of data was
not normal. Consequently, the non-parametric Spearman´s Rank Correlation Coefficient was
selected for the analysis. This test is particularly appropriate for non-normal distributions as it
assesses monotonic relationships – determining whether the variables change together in a
consistent direction. Based on this statistical framework, the relationship between variables
was evaluated according to the following hypotheses:
Null Hypothesis (H₀):
There is no relationship between students’ “reading comprehension skills” and students’
“lexical knowledge”.
Alternative Hypothesis (H₁):
There is a relationship between students’ “reading comprehension skills” and students’ “lexical
knowledge”.
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Table 4. Spearman’s correlation between “reading comprehension skills” and students’ “lexical
knowledge”.
READING LEXICON
READING —
LEXICON 0.711*** —
Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001. Source: authors’ own elaboration
The Spearman correlation coefficient between reading comprehension and lexical knowledge
was r: 0.711, which was moderate, positive, and statistically significant at the p <.001 level.
This indicates that learners who performed better in lexical knowledge also tended to achieve
higher scores in reading skills. As a result, he alternative hypothesis (H₁) is accepted, and the
null hypothesis (H ) is rejected.
DISCUSSION
The importance of developing strong reading comprehension skills and a solid vocabulary
knowledge is unquestionable. In this study, the relationship between these two variables was
examined using a quantitative, non-experimental research design to determine if lexical
knowledge contributed to learners´ reading comprehension. All of this was based on the
question: What are the reading comprehension skills and lexical knowledge among second-
year high school learners of English as a foreign language at a private school in Azogues at the
beginning of the 2025-2026 academic year? And sub- questions: How do second-year high
school EFL students at a private institution in Azogues perform in reading comprehension
tasks? What is the lexical knowledge among EFL learners in the second year of high school at
a private school in Azogues? How does lexical knowledge relate to the reading comprehension
skills of second-year EFL learners at a private school?It is necessary to highlight that the
reading comprehension skill has already been studied in relation with lexical knowledge.
Yurko and Protsenko (2020), for instance, consider that understanding vocabulary in context
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is key for developing strong comprehension skills. Romero-Contreras et al, (2021) support this
idea by studying lexical knowledge as a predictor of effective reading comprehension.
Similarly, Herrera (2022) explored how implicit and explicit vocabulary instruction impact
lexical learning, and how it influences reading comprehension. He discovered that explicit
instruction allowed his students to learn more vocabulary in five months than in two years of
implicit teaching. Dong et al. (2020), for their part, found a substantial correlation between both
variables, especially among secondary school students. Manihuruk (2020) also stated that a
rich lexical knowledge allows learners to have a good performance in reading
comprehension tasks. Finally, and contrarily to what the previous studies have stated, Anji et
al. (2025) found that the correlation between lexical ability and reading is non- significant in
some contexts. In summary, the literature shows a generally positive correlation between
lexical knowledge and reading comprehension, especially when learners receive explicit
vocabulary instruction.
In this specific context, in Azogues, among second-year high school students, there is also a
positive correlation between these two variables. In fact, the relationship is really strong among
students of a private school who are between 15 and 16 years old. Therefore, this strong
relationship, r: 0.711 suggest that lexical knowledge may be a key predictor of reading
comprehension success. This finding highlights the role of lexical knowledge and the need of
fostering vocabulary development to enhance students´ reading proficiency.
Nevertheless, it is important to consider that the study included only people of two age groups,
15 and 16 years old. It does not reflect younger or older students’ proficiency. Moreover,
external factors as motivation, prior knowledge, reading habits, or socio- economic
background were not controlled, which might influence the results. These factors should be
considered in future research to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the
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association between lexicon and reading comprehension.
CONCLUSION
This study set out to examine reading comprehension skills and lexical knowledge among
second-year high school learners of English as a foreign language at a private school in
Azogues at the beginning of the 2025-2026 academic year. This study has found out that
generally second-year high school students performed best in inferential reading while
understanding text logic and structure was the most challenging skill for them. Their
performance in reading for specific details was also strong, whereas reading for gist was
moderate. Regarding lexical knowledge, learners demonstrated high competence in lexical
sets, and moderate performance in word-definition correspondence and functional
vocabulary, while using lexicon in context proved to be the most difficult. With these analyses,
the study revealed a strong and statistically significant positive correlation between lexical
knowledge and reading comprehension. All this implies that lexical knowledge plays a crucial
role in supporting reading comprehension among second-year high school EFL learners.
Teachers should emphasize explicit vocabulary instruction and activities that develop word
knowledge and contextual usage. In this way, learners would improve their ability to
understand texts, make inferences, and grasp implied meanings. It results significant since the
study provides empirical evidence of the relationship between variables in a specific EFL
context, offering practical guidance for teachers, curriculum developers, and educational
policymakers.
Despite, the important insights, the study has some limitations such as the restricted sample,
limited to a single private school in Azogues. Also, the data were collected at one point in time
not paying attention to how learners’ skills might develop over time. Future research should
therefore include larger samples with more diverse participants or adopt longitudinal designs
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to examine how lexicon and reading comprehension evolve across academic years.
Furthermore, the development and validation of reliable instruments of data collection should
be prioritized.
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ANEXO
